methods of teaching english

METHODS AND APPROACHES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING
IN BRIEF

Abbreviations:
T: Teacher
Sts: Students
L1: First Language, Mother Tongue
L2: Second Language, The language the students aim to learn

THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD (GTM)

1.  Learning Theory: Deductive learning is essential. First, the teacher gives rules explicitly then the rules are reinforced with examples and exercises.

2.  Language Theory: Language is for understanding the literature. Translation is the way to learn the language. Oral communication is not primarily important. Written language is superior to spoken language. Students also learn the structure of their own native language. Those who study a foreign language become more cultured and intellectual.

3.  Culture: Culture is limited to literature and fine arts.

4.  Teachers' Role: Teacher is the strict authority. Classes are teacher centred.

5.  Students' Role: Students are the passive receivers of the new information. The teacher starts the activities and directs them. Students are supposed to memorise the rules and the new vocabulary with their meanings in their native language.

6.  Interactions: Very often “Teacher –Student” interactions occur. Rarely “Student – Student” interactions also occur.

7.  Vocabulary Teaching: The most common vocabulary teaching technique is “the memorisation of long lists of vocabulary with their equivalents in the students’ native language. Other techniques are
      -Teaching “cognates” (i.e., “cinema –sinema”, “theatre – tiyatro” ..., etc).
      - Using synonyms and antonyms  

8.  Grammar Teaching: The teaching of grammar is deductive. The teacher introduces the rules explicitly and wants the students to apply these rules to new examples in exercises. Students are supposed to memorise the rules. In order to explain the rules, the teacher uses comparison and contract between the students’ native language grammar and target language grammar. Translation is a common way to clarify the meanings of the new grammar patterns in the target language.

9.  Materials: Texts from the target language literature are used. The teacher may either write the text or use an authentic literary text.

10.Syllabus: Structural syllabus (i.e., list of structures to be taught during the course) is used. The order of structures starts from the easiest   

11.Role of L1: L1 (i.e., students’ native language) has an important function in teaching vocabulary and grammar. Since oral communication in the target language is not important, classroom instructions are given in L1.

12. Evaluation: Translation is an important technique to test students’ progress in the target language. In addition, “fill-in-the-blank” type test items are also used. Synonyms, antonyms, and cognates can be asked to test vocabulary in formal tests. Reading passages and comprehension questions about the passages can also take place in tests as the reading section.

13.Goals and Objectives: Among the goals are to teach translation, to read and understand literary texts in the target language, to make students aware of their native language structure and vocabulary, and to improve students’ mental capacities with grammar exercises.

14.Error Correction: The teacher corrects the errors strictly. Errors are not tolerated. Accuracy is emphasised strictly. Accuracy means grammatical correctness.

15.Student's Feelings: There is no information about how GTM deals with students’ feelings.  V     Therefore, we cannot consider this method as a humanistic approach.

16.Techniques:

1. Translation of a Literary Passage: Students translate a passage from the target language into their native language. The passage provides the focus for several classes: vocabulary and grammatical structures in the passage are studied in the following lessons.

2. Reading Comprehension Questions: Students answer questions in the target language based on their understanding of the reading passage. First, they answer information questions whose answers they can find in the passage. Second, they answer inference questions based on their comprehension of the passage although the answer cannot be found in the passage directly in the passage. Third, they answer questions that require students to relate the passage to their own experience.

3. Antonyms / Synonyms: Students are given one set of words and are asked to find antonyms in the reading passage. A similar exercise could be done by asking students to find synonyms for a particular set of words.

4. Cognates: Students are taught to recognise cognates by learning the spelling or sound patterns that correspond between the languages. Students should be aware of “true cognates” (i.e., theatre-tiyatro) and “false cognates” (i.e., apartment-apartman).

5. Deductive Application of Rule: Grammar rules are presented with examples. Exceptions to each rule are also noted. Once students understand a rule, they are asked to apply it to some different examples.

6. Fill-in-the blanks: Students are given a series of sentences with words missing. They fill in the blanks with new vocabulary items or necessary items of grammatical features.

7. Memorisation: Students are given lists of target language vocabulary words and their native language equivalents and are asked to memorise them. Students are also required to memorise grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms such as verb conjugations.

8. Use words in Sentences:  In order to show that students understand the meaning and use of a new vocabulary item, they make up sentences in which they use the new words.

9. Composition: The teacher gives the students a topic to write about in the target language. The topic is based upon some aspect of the reading passage of the lesson. Sometimes, instead of creating a composition, students are asked to prepare a précis (pronounced as /preısı/).

17. Skills: The primary skills to be improved are “reading” and “writing”. Little attention is given to speaking and listening, and almost no attention to pronunciation.

THE DIRECT METHOD (DM)

DM was born as a reaction to GTM because GTM cannot prepare learners for real life language situations in which oral communication is the media.

1. Learning Theory: Inductive learning is essential. There is a direct relation between form and meaning. L2 learning is similar to L1 acquisition. There is a direct exposure to the target language. Exposure of Long chunks in the target language. Learning occurs naturally.

2. Language Theory: Language is for oral use. Each language is unique. There is a direct relation between form and meaning. No other language should interfere when learning a language.

3. Culture: Not only art or literature, but also other aspects of culture (namely, life style, customs, traditions, institutions, food, daily habits, history, geography, etc.)   Should be taken into consideration. Daily speech is important.

4. Teacher's Role: The teacher usually directs the interactions but he/she is not as dominant as in GTM. Sometimes acts like a partner of the students.

5. Students' Role: Sts are active participants. Sometimes pair works take place. Even the teacher takes roles in activities.

6. Interactions: T- st and St - st interactions often occur.

7. Vocabulary Teaching: Pictures, realia, examples, sample sentences are used to teach vocabulary. Use of L1 is not allowed. There is a direct relation between form and meaning.

8. Grammar Teaching: Grammar is taught inductively. Examples and drills are given and students are expected to discover and acquire the rules. Drills like chain drill, yes question, no question, or question are used to help students induce the rule.

9. Materials: Reading passages (for topics), Dialogues (for situation), plays (for situations) are used.

10. Syllabus: Situational and topical syllabuses are used.

11. Role of L1: L1 is not permitted.

12. Evaluation: Sts' ability to use the language is tested. Not about language, the language itself.

13. Goals and Objectives: Teaching Sts how to communicate in the target language. Teaching of thinking in the target language.

14. Error Correction: Sts' self correction.

15. Sts' Feelings: There is no information dealing with this issue.

16. Techniques: Reading aloud, Question and answer exercise, self correction, conversation practice, fill-in-the-blank exercise, dictation, drawing (for listening comprehension), and paragraph writing.

17. Skills: Speaking, listening, reading and writing are important skills. Especially speaking and listening are emphasised. Vocabulary is over grammar.

 

THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD (ALM)

1. Learning Theory: Learning is based on the principles of Behaviourism. (Mim-mem approach).
     Habit Formation is essential.

Habit Formation

                

                                        Reinforcement (Behaviour is likely to occur again)

  Stimulus----organism

                                           No reinforcement or negative reinforcement (Behaviour is not likely to occur again)

                                      

Rules are induced from examples. Explicit grammar rules are not given. Learning is inductive.

Habit formation is actualised by means of repetitions and other mechanical drills.

2. Language Theory: Language is based on descriptive linguistics. Every language is seen as its own unique system. The system is comprised of several different levels. (i.e. phonological, morphological, and syntactic). There is a natural order of skills. 1. Listening, 2. Speaking, 3. Reading,   4. Writing. Everyday speech and oral skills are important. Perfect pronunciation is required. Language is primarily for Oral Communication.

3. Culture: Culture consists of everyday behaviour, and lifestyle of the target language community. Culture is presented in dialogues.

4. Teacher’s Role: T is like an orchestra leader. S/he directs and controls the language behaviour of the students. T is a good model of the target language, especially for pronunciation and other oral skills. The differences between Sts’ L1 and L2 should be known by the teacher.

5. Students’ Role: Sts are imitators of the teacher as perfect model of the target language or the native speakers in the audio recordings.

6. Interactions: T-St,     ST- ST. Interactions are mostly initiated by the teacher.

7. Vocabulary Teaching: Meaning is taught directly. L1 is prohibited because it may cause bad habit formations. Vocabulary is introduced through dialogues.

8. Grammar Teaching: Explicit rules are not provided. Students induce the rules through examples and drills. Students acquire grammar by being exposed to patterns through mechanical drills.

9. Materials: Dialogues

10. Syllabus: Grammar points and sentence patterns in structural syllabus.

11. Role of L1: L1 is not allowed in the classroom. It may cause interference and bad habit formation in L2.

12. Evaluation: Discrete-point tests are used. Each item (question) should focus on only one point of the language at a time. E.g. distinguishing between words in a minimal pair. Appropriate verb form in a sentence.

13. Goals and Objectives: to enable students to speak and write in the target language. To make students able to use the target language automatically without stopping to think. To form new habits in the target language.

14. Error Correction: Errors are corrected by the teacher since errors may cause bad habit formation.

15. Sts’ Feelings: There are no principles related to Sts’ feelings.

16. Techniques:

       1. Dialogue Memorisation

       2. Minimal pairs: (for teaching pronunciation)

       3. Complete the dialogue

       4. Grammar Games

       5. Mechanical Drills

             a) Repetition drill

             b) Chain Drill

             c) Single- slot Substitution Drill (T gives one cue to be substituted)

             d) Multiple-slot Substitution Drill (T gives more than one cue to be substituted)

17. Skills: Listening and speaking are emphasised. There is a natural order of skills.

                  1. Listening 2. Speaking 3. Reading 4. Writing 

 

THE SILENT WAY (SW) (Caleb Gattegno)

1.  Learning Theory: Cognitive Psychology is the basis. Language learning is not habit formation. It is rule formation. Language learning has a sequence from the known to the unknown. Students induce the rules from examples and the languages they are exposed to, therefore learning is inductive

2.  Language Theory: Languages of the world share a number of features (e.g. every language uses subject, object; every language has adjective, adverb, verb  ...etc.) However each language is unique. Language is for self expression (to express thoughts, perceptions, ideas and feelings). "Cognitive Coding" helps learners learn the language. "Colour rods" and "Fidel Chart" are used for cognitive coding.

3.  Culture: Culture is an inseparable part of language. Language reflects culture. Everyday life, art, literature. etc. should be learnt.

4.  Teachers' Role: The teacher is a technician or an engineer who facilitates learning. Only the learner can do learning. The teacher is aware of what the students already know and he/she can decide the next step. The teacher is silent. Silence is a tool because teacher's silence gives the responsibility to the student. Besides teacher's silence helps students monitor themselves and improve their own inner criteria.

5.  Students' Role: Students should make use of what they already know. They are responsible for
their own learning. They actively take part in exploring the language. The teacher works with the students and the students work on the language. St-st interaction is important. Sts can learn from each other.

6.  Interactions: The teacher is silent in "T-st” interactions. St-st interactions are also possible because students can learn from each other.

7.  Vocabulary Teaching: Vocabulary is taught by means of visual aids and word-charts. Vocabulary is always recycled by means of word-charts. Vocabulary is restricted at the beginning.

8.  Grammar Teaching: There is a focus on the structures of the language although explicit grammar rules are never given.

9.  Materials: Sound Colour Charts (For teaching pronunciation; one colour represents one sound),  Colour Rods (for cognitive coding of grammatical patterns), 8 Fidel Charts (used for sound spelling association.

10.   Syllabus: There is no linear structural syllabus. The teacher starts with what students already know, and builds from one structure to the next. The syllabus develops according to the students' learning needs.

11.   Role of L1: L1 can be used to give instructions when necessary. Meaning is made clear by focusing the student's perceptions, not by translation. During feedback sessions L1 be used at beginning levels. L1 can be exploited. For example, similar sounds in L1 and L2 can be used to make students aware of phonological similarities.

12.  Evaluation: The teacher may never give a formal test. He/she assesses students' learning all the time. Continuous monitoring by the teacher is essential.

13.  Goals and Objectives: Students should be able to use the target language for self expression (to express their thoughts, feelings, ideas). To help students improve their inner criteria for correctness. Students should rely on themselves to be able to use the target language.

14.  Error Correction: Errors are natural and inevitable. The teacher uses students' errors to decide where further work is necessary. Self correction is necessary for the students to compare their own production with their developing inner criteria. If students cannot self-correct, the teacher supplies the correct language but only as a last resort. Peer correction is also very common, but it should be in a co-operative manner.

15.  Student's Feelings: Students' negative feelings are treated by the teacher. During feedback sessions, students can express their feelings like their fears, what they think about classes, and learning a foreign language, their needs and wants. Students are encouraged to co-operate with one another in order to create a relaxed and enjoyable classroom atmosphere.

16. Techniques:

  1. Teaching pronunciation with "sound colour charts"

  2. Cognitive coding with colour rods.

  3. Peer correction to improve co-operative manner.

  4. Self correction gestures

  5. Teacher's Silence

  6. Structured feedback: Students are invited to talk about the day's instruction (what they have
learnt that day during classes). Students learn to take responsibility for their own learning by becoming aware of themselves, and by controlling and applying their own learning strategies.

  7. Fidel Charts: Used to teach sound spelling association.

  8. Word Charts:  Used to teach and recycle vocabulary. The words are written in different
           colours so that students can learn basic pronunciation patterns.

17. Skills: Pronunciation is emphasised at the very beginning. It is important that students
      acquire the melody of the language. All four skills (reading, writing, speaking, and listening) 
      are worked on from the beginning.

 

SUGGESTOPEDIA (Georgi Lazanov)

1.     Learning Theory: People use 5-10% of their mental capacity. In order to make better use of our mental reserves, limitations need to be desuggested. Students should eliminate the feelings that they cannot be successful and thus, to help them overcome the barriers to learning. Psychological barriers should be removed.

          There are six principle theoretical components through which desuggestion and suggestion 
          operate and that set up access to reserves.

1.  Authority:  People remember best when the new information comes from a reliable    authoritative source.

2.  Infantilization: Authority is also used to suggest a teacher-student relation like that of "parent-child" relationship. In the child's role the learner takes part in role playing, games, songs and gymnastic exercises that help the older student regain the self confidence, spontaneity and receptivity of the child.

3.  Double-planedness:  The learner learns not only from the instructions but also from the environment. Physical features of the classroom are important.

4.  Intonation:  Varying intonation of the presented material helps to avoid boredom. T should present the material with different intonation patterns. Correct intonation patterns should be emphasised.

5.  Rhythm:  Materials presented with varying rhythm and tones are more interesting.

6.  Concert pseudo-passiveness:  Materials presented with varying rhythm, intonation, and tone should be accompanied by music. Music should have sixty beats in a minute. Baroque concertos work very well for this purpose.

2.  Language Theory: Lazanov does not articulate a theory of language. However according to this method communication is a two-plane process. Language is the first of the two planes. In the second plane, there are factors, which influence the linguistic message (e.g. the way one dresses, non-verbal behaviours that affect the linguistic message).

3.  Culture: The culture, which students learn, concerns the everyday life of people who speak the target language. The use of fine arts is also common.

4.  Teachers' Role: Teacher is the authority. Learners learn better if they get the information from a reliable authority. Students must trust and respect that authority.

5.  Students' Role: Students play a child's role (infantilization). They adopt a new identity (new name, job, family...etc.)  As they feel more secure, they can be less inhibited.

6.  Interactions: “St-st” and “T-st” interactions occur. Students often do "pair work" and "group work".

7.  Vocabulary Teaching: Vocabulary is emphasised. Claims about the success of the method often focus on the large number of words that can be acquired. Comments and explanations about the meanings can be provided in student's L1.

8.  Grammar Teaching: Grammar is taught explicitly but minimally. Explicit grammar rules are provided in L1.

9.  Materials: Dialogues are used with their translations in L1 on the opposite side. Texts with literary value are used. The textbook posters are used for peripheral learning.

10.   Syllabus: A course lasts 30 days and ten units of study. Each unit has a long dialogue consisting of 1200 words. There is grammar review and commentary section with a list of vocabulary. The dialogues are graded by lexis and grammar.

11.   Role of L1: L1 is used to make the meaning of dialogues clear. The teacher can use L1 when necessary but he uses L1 less and less as the course proceeds.

12.   Evaluation: Evaluation is conducted on students'  "in-class-performances" and not through formal tests, which would threaten the relaxed atmosphere, which is considered essential for accelerated learning.

13.  Goals and Objectives: Teachers hope to accelerate the process by which students learn to use a foreign language for everyday communication. For this, more of the students' mental power must be tapped. This can be achieved by removing psychological barriers.

14.  Error Correction: At the beginning levels, errors are not corrected immediately because the emphasis is on communication. When errors of form occur, teachers uses the correct form later on during class, because immediate interference by the teacher may destroy the relaxed atmosphere in classes.

15.  Student's Feelings: A great deal of attention is given to students' feelings. Students should feel relaxed and secure. Teacher's existence and classmates' existence should not threaten the individual. Individual's self-confidence is important. Choice of new identity makes students feel more comfortable and secure. The classroom conditions (temperature, lighting, armchairs) should supply students with the feeling of relaxation and comfort.

16. Techniques:

¨    Classroom set up: dim lights, soft music, cushioned armchairs, and posters on the walls.

¨    Positive Suggestion:  

Þ  Direct Suggestion:  The teacher tells students they are going to be successful to create self-confidence.

Þ  Indirect Suggestion: This is provided by music and comfortable physical conditions of the classroom.

¨    Peripheral Learning: Posters, lists, charts, texts, paintings, and graphs are hung on the walls of the classroom. Students learn from these although their attentions are not directly on these materials.

¨    Visualisation: Students are asked to close their eyes and concentrate on their breathing. Then the teacher describes a scene or an event in detail so that students think they are really there. When the scene is complete, the teacher asks students to slowly open their eyes and return to the present. This can be done just before students write a composition in order to activate their creativity.

¨    Choose a New Identity: Students can be asked to write about their fictional new identity, new home town, family, etc.

¨    First Concert: Music is played. The teacher begins a slow, dramatic reading, synchronised in intonation with the music. The music is classical. Teacher's voice is usually hushed, but rises and falls with the music.

¨    Second Concert:  Students put their scripts aside. Students close their eyes and listen as the teacher reads with musical accompaniment. This time the content that is read by the teacher is emphasised by the way the teacher reads the text. Music is secondarily important. At the end of the concert, the class ends for the day.

¨    Primary Activation:  Primary activation and secondary activation are the components of the active phase of the lesson. Students read the dialogue in the target language aloud as individuals or groups. They read it sadly, angrily, and amorously.

¨    Secondary Activation: Students engage in various activities such as singing, dancing, dramatising, and playing games. Linguistic forms are not important. Communication is important. In order to make students focus on communication, activities are varied.

17. Skills: Oral communication is emphasised. Speaking and listening are important. Writing and reading are also important. Students write imaginative compositions to improve their writing, and read dialogues or texts to practise reading.

 

COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING (CLL)

1. Learning Theory: CLL advocates a holistic approach to language learning. "True human learning" is both cognitive and affective. This is termed "whole person learning". A group of ideas concerning the psychological requirements for successful and "non-defensive” learning are collected under the acronym (SARD).

                                   S   A   R   D

  Security     Attention & Aggression       Retention & Reflection      Discrimination            

Security: Students should feel secure to enter into a successful learning experience. Classroom atmosphere, students' relations with each other, teacher's attitude to students all affect students' feelings of security.

Attention: Attention is the learner's involvement in learning.

Aggression: is to show what has been learnt for "self-assertion” like a child who tries to show what he/she has learnt. The child tries to prove the things he/she has learnt.

Retention: If the "whole person" is involved in the learning process, what is retained is internalised and becomes a part of the learner's "new persona" in the foreign language. The material should neither be too old nor be too new or conversely too familiar. Retention will best take place somewhere in between novelty and familiarity.

Reflection: Students need quiet reflection time in order to learn. The teacher reads the text for three times and the students relax and listen for reflection. Students also listen to their own voice from the tape for reflection.

Discrimination: Students should discriminate the similarities and the differences among target language forms by listening to themselves and the teacher carefully. They should also listen to discriminate if what they say is similar or different from what the teacher says.

E.g. Similarity:
          Present Continuous:  She is studying French   
          Past Continuous: Tom was cooking. (In Both tenses "-ing" is used)

       Difference:
          John visited his uncle      (regular verb)
          John bought a new car   (irregular verb)

2. Language Theory: Language is for communication. Language is for developing creative thinking. Culture is integrated with language. The focus shifts from grammar and sentence formation to a "sharing and belonging between persons". Language is what you learn and share with others. Students should trust the learning process, the teacher and the others.

3. Culture: Knowing the target culture is important to be successful in communication. Culture is integrated with language. Social life style, art, literature, customs, habits should be learnt.

4. Teacher's Role: T's initial role is that of a counsellor. The teacher tries to remove the threatening factors in the classroom. Even the teacher stands behind the students to reduce because the teacher's superior knowledge and his existence are also threatening factors.

5. Students' Role: Initially the learner is dependent on the teacher. As s/he goes on studying the language he becomes more and more independent.

6. Interactions:  st-st,   T-st   interactions occur in the classroom. In addition, group work, and pair
work tasks are carried out by students. Usually the teacher physically removes himself/herself from the circle in order to increase st-st interactions.

7. Vocabulary Teaching: Literal native language equivalents are given to the target language         in order to teach their meanings. This makes meaning clear.

8. Grammar Teaching: Large chunks are analysed by means of equivalents in L1. It can be explicit when necessary.

9. Materials: A textbook is not considered necessary. Materials may be developed by the teacher as the course develops. Materials depend on students' needs. Conversations are generated by the students depending on what they want to say in the target language.

10. Syllabus: CLL does not use a conversational language syllabus, which sets out in advance the grammar, vocabulary, and other language items to be taught and the order in which they will be covered. Syllabus is developed in terms of students' communication needs.

11. Role of L1: Students' security is initially enhanced by using their native language. Where possible, literal native language equivalents are given to the target language words that have been transcribed. This makes their meaning clear and allows students to combine the target language words in different ways to create new sentences. Directions in class, students' expressions of feelings are in L1. In later steps, more and more L2 is used.

12. Evaluation: A teacher-made classroom test would be an integrative test rather than a discrete-
     point test. Students are asked to write a paragraph or they can be given an oral interview.

13. Goals and Objectives: Students should learn how to use the target language communicatively. Students should learn about their own learning to take an increasing responsibility about it. Non-defensive learning is the result when the teacher and the students treat each other as a whole person.

14. Error Correction: The error is treated in a non-threatening way. The teacher repeats the correct form without calling further attention to the error and the owner of the error.

15. Sts' Feelings: Students' feelings are considered extremely important. One regular activity is getting feedback from students' about their feelings; how they feeling about learning a foreign language. Negative feelings may block students' learning. Security is basic. Clear instructions, enough time, should be given to the individual for the respond.

16. Techniques:

A) Transcription: The teacher writes the L1 equivalent of the text in the target language on the board or a poster-sized paper in order to be able to refer later. Students copy them in their notebooks.

 B) Reflection on Experience: Students tell about their feelings about language learning
     experience.

 C) Reflective Listening: Students relax and listen to their own voices speaking the target    language on the tape. The teacher may also read the transcript while students are          listening.

D) Human Computer: The teacher repeats the correct form as many times as the students
     need. The teacher never corrects the student's error. Only repeats the correct form.

E) Small Group Tasks: Students learn from each other. Also small groups can let students
     know each other well.

17. Skills: In the early stages, students design the syllabus. They decide what they want to say in
       L2. The most important skills are listening comprehension and speaking. Reading and writing
       are also worked on.

 

THE TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE METHOD (TPR)

1.  Learning Theory: There are three hypothesis:

A) Innate Bio-program: There exists a specific, innate bio-program for language learning,
         which defines an optimal path for first and second language development. Children develop
         listening competence before they develop the ability to speak. They make “a blue-print” of
         the language first. They develop "a cognitive map" of the language during listening process.

B) Brain Lateralisation: The brain has two main parts: left hemisphere, and right hemisphere
        , which have different learning functions. If both hemispheres are activated, learning is more
         effective.

C) Stress (an affective filter): Stress intervenes between the act of learning and what is to be
         learned. The lower the stress is, the greater the learning becomes.

2.  Language Theory: Language is primarily oral. It is just like the acquisition of native language. Learners first listen (silent period), then oral production starts. Oral communication is crucial. Skilful use of imperatives by the instructor can be helpful for the acquisition of many vocabulary items and grammatical structures. Asher views the verb and particularly the verb in the imperative as the central linguistic motif around which language use and learning are organised.     

3.  Culture: Culture is the lifestyle of people who speak the language natively. Daily habits, social life traditions should be learned.

4.  Teachers' Role: Initially the teacher is the director of all student behaviour. In the later stages, the teacher is being directed.

5.  Students' Role: Initially students are the followers of the teacher. Usually after ten to twenty hours, of instruction some students will be ready to speak the language. At this point they start to direct the teacher.

6.  Interactions: T with whole group,  T- respond by students non-verbally;    Sts - Sts;    St - st

7.  Vocabulary Teaching: Vocabulary is introduced through imperatives. Verb is the kernel. Other categories like adjective, adverb, and noun can be introduced around verb. Objects, especially the objects in the immediate environment are introduced.

8.  Grammar Teaching: Imperatives play an important role. Multi-word chunks, single-word chunks are used with imperatives. The teacher uses his/her creativity to introduce various grammatical patterns with the accompaniment of imperatives.

E.g. For the introduction of “If " clause type 1

       "Stand up if you are from Ankara" 
           "Smile if you are wearing a blue T-shirt"

9.  Materials: Objects around in the classroom, visuals, written texts, tasks for kinaesthetic learning can be used.

10. Syllabus: Sentence based syllabus with grammatical and lexical criteria is used. TPR  
   requires initial attention to meaning rather than to the forms of items.

11. Role of L1: The method is introduced in the students' L1. After the introduction, rarely would
  the mother tongue be used. Meaning is made through body movements.

12.  Evaluation: Teachers will know immediately whether or not students understand by observing heir students' actions. Formal evaluations can be conducted simply by commanding individual   students to perform a series of actions. As students become more advanced, their Performance in the skits they have created can become the basis for evaluation.

13.  Goals and Objectives: To make students enjoy learning the target language and communicate with it. Stress should be reduced.

14.  Error Correction: Errors are inevitable. The teacher should be tolerant of students' errors;   only major errors should be corrected. The teacher should be gentle when correcting students' errors. As students get more advanced, teachers can correct more minor errors.

15.  Student's Feelings: The teacher should not force the students to speak. Silent period must be taken into consideration. When they begin to speak, perfection is not necessary. Stress should be reduced. The teacher should use "zany commands" and humorous skits of actions to make classes more enjoyable.

16.Techniques:

A) Commands: Use of commands is the major technique. Commands are given to students to    
      perform an action; actions make meaning clear.

B) Role reversal: Students command their teacher and classmates to perform actions.
        Students speak after the silent period. Students should not be forced before they feel ready.

C) Action sequence: The teacher may give three connected commands (e.g. "Point to the door,
        walk to the door, and touch the door")

17. Skills: Natural order of skills:

         1. Listening (Very important during the silent period)

         2. Speaking (teacher should not force sts to produce the language especially during the silent
                                period sts are expected to produce the target language voluntarily)

         3. Reading

         4. Writing

 

THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH (CA)

1. Learning Theory: Little is known about the learning theory of “The Communicative Approach". Activities that involve real communication promote learning. Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.

2. Language Theory: Language is for communication. The goal of language teaching is to develop "communicative competence". Using the language appropriately in social contexts is important and communicative competence should be acquired.

What is language according to the Communicative Approach?

    A) Language is a system for expression of meaning.

    B) The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.

    C) The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.

    D) The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but
         categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.

3. Culture: Culture is the everyday life of people. There are some important aspects of language which are important to communication; for instance, the use of non-verbal behaviour. Body language, which may differ from culture to culture.

4. Teacher's Role: The teacher is a facilitator of his/her students' learning. He/she is a manager of classroom activities. He/she acts as an advisor and monitors students' performance.

5. Students' Role: Students are communicators. They are engaged in negotiating meaning actively. Students are responsible are responsible managers of their own learning.

6. Interactions: St-st interactions take place very often. Students benefit from group work, pair work, group discussions, projects...etc.

7. Vocabulary Teaching: Meaning is paramount. Meaning should be conveyed through visual aids, real objects, models, and context. Vocabulary should be taught within the context.

8. Grammar Teaching: Each linguistic form has a function. One function may be expressed with different forms.

e.g. (Asking for permission "May I go out?"  Or “Would you let me go out?” etc.)

 In addition, different forms may have one function.

E.g. (The modal "can" has various functions)

       "I can lift this chair" = ability

       "It can rain today" = strong possibility

       "Can I use your telephone?" = asking for permission

    Functions are taught explicitly. Grammatical explanations can be given explicitly if it is    believed to be useful for the acquisition of the form and function.

 9. Materials: Authentic materials. Articles from magazines or newspapers, songs, short stories, advertisements...etc., which are used by native speakers in real life are used as class materials. Communicative activities (information gap, opinion gap activities) are used to promote students' communication in classes. Pictures, and other visual aids and realia are very important to support meaning. Task based activities are also used to promote students' involvement in classes.

10. Syllabus: Usually (but not always) functional-notional syllabus is used (e.g. frequency, motion, location).

11. Role of L1: Students' L1 has no particular role in the Communicative Approach. L2 should be used during not only activities, but also when the teacher is giving explanations, instructions, and homework. Students should see L2 as a tool for communication, not a subject to study.

12. Evaluation: The teacher evaluates students' accuracy and fluency. The teacher may give communicative tests, which are integrative tests and which have real communicative function. The teacher may tell students to write a letter to a friend to test their writing skill. Improvisation of a situation orally can also be a means of evaluation of the students' oral performance.

13. Goals and Objectives: To make students communicatively competent (i.e., being able to use the target language appropriately in a given context). For this reason, students need knowledge of linguistic forms, meanings, and functions. Students must know that many different forms can be used to perform a function, and one single form can serve a variety of functions. Students should be able to choose the most appropriate form for a specific function.

14. Error Correction: Errors of form can be tolerated since they are natural outcome of the development of communication skills. Students can have limited linguistic knowledge and still be successful communicators.

15. Sts' Feelings: Students' motivation is important. Students should feel that they are learning something useful for their lives. Students' security is enhanced by many opportunities for co-operative interactions with their fellow students and the teacher. The teacher gives students an opportunity to express ideas and opinions on a regular basis so that students integrate the target language with their own personality. Thus, they feel more secure about using the target language. Games, dramas and other enjoyable activities are used to make classroom atmosphere better, more friendly and relaxing.

16. Techniques:

     a) Authentic Materials: Genuine materials from newspapers, magazines, videos from            real English TV channels, menus, time tables, etc is used.

     b) Scrambled Sentences: for cohesion and coherence.

     c) Language Games: In order to provide valuable communicative practice of the target           language.

     d) Picture Strip Story: This activity provides opinion gaps. Students discuss which           activity should come first.

      e) Role Play: this technique provides the opportunity to practise the target language in
          various social contexts. If the role plays is unprepared improvisation it also provides
          genuine communication (i.e., information gap - natural unpredictability of what each
          participant will say to each other).

17. Skills and Language Areas: Language functions are emphasised over forms. The target language is taught at supra sentential or discourse level, too. Students learn cohesion and coherence. Conversation structure in the target language is also reviewed. The four language skills are learnt from the very beginning. "Skimming, and "Scanning" in reading and listening are improved.